Paineau, Damien (2008) The Longitudinal Study on Health and Diet (ELPAS) Opinion on early prevention of childhood obesity. PhD thesis Nutrition humaine, UMR914 (AGROPARISTECH), AgroParistech 2008AGPT0045 p.216.

Full text available as: - Paineau_V5-0.pdf ( 13155 Kb )

Licence: CC 2.0

Abstract

The Longitudinal Study on Health and Diet (ELPAS) was designed in 2001. It aimed at assessing in children and adults feasibility and clinical efficacy of isocaloric macronutrient modulations (decreases in fat and simple sugar intakes and increase in complex carbohydrate intake). This is a randomized controlled dietary modification trial, which was carried out in 2005/2006 in 1013 Parisian families.

Several studies were performed prior to the intervention:

• Simulation studies showed that increase in complex carbohydrate intakes to reach isocaloricity may be hard to achieve. Those studies also demonstrated that dietary modifications have minor economic impact.

• A comparative study was performed to assess the efficacy of three field methods for fat mass measurement in children (leg-to-leg bioelectrical impedance, skinfold thickness, and other anthropometric parameters). All three methods showed good correlation but moderate agreement to the reference method (air-displacement plethysmography and deuterium dilution).

• A food-related quality-of-life scale was developed and validated in healthy French adults (QV-AF scale).

Results of the intervention show that a marked decrease in fat and simple sugar intakes is feasible through family dietary coaching. Due to insufficient increase in complex carbohydrate intake, intervention groups decreased their energy intake. Beneficial clinical effects were induced in adults who received advice on how to decrease both fat and simple sugar intakes: compared to controls, those subjects had a decrease in BMI and fat mass (BMI: -0.02 kg/m² vs. +0.24 kg/m², p=0.01; fat mass: -0.20 kg vs. +0.43 kg, p=0.04). In children nutritional changes had no effect on clinical parameters.

Multiple factors are involved in obesity development, requiring family-based strategies which account for socio-economic, cultural and psychological characteristics. In children, very early obesity prevention will be a major challenge in the coming years; recent scientific data have demonstrated that the perinatal period is crucial for obesity prevention.

References

Aaron DJ, Kriska AM, Dearwater SR, Cauley JA, Metz KF & LaPorte RE (1995) Reproducibility and validity of an epidemiologic questionnaire to assess past year physical activity in adolescents. Am J Epidemiol 142, 191-201.

Adam-Perrot A, Clifton P & Brouns F (2006) Low-carbohydrate diets: nutritional and physiological aspects. Obes Rev 7, 49-58.

Adams J & White M (2005) When the population approach to prevention puts the health of individuals at risk. Int J Epidemiol 34, 40-43.

Agence Française de Sécurité Sanitaire des Aliments (2004) Glucides et santé : état des lieux, évaluation et recommandations.

Ailhaud G & Guesnet P (2004) Fatty acid composition of fats is an early determinant of childhood obesity: a short review and an opinion. Obes Rev 5, 21-26.

Ailhaud G, Massiera F, Weill P, Legrand P, Alessandri JM & Guesnet P (2006) Temporal changes in dietary fats: role of n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids in excessive adipose tissue development and relationship to obesity. Prog Lipid Res 45, 203-236.

Akpinar E, Bashan I, Bozdemir N & Saatci E (2007) Which is the best anthropometric technique to identify obesity: body mass index, waist circumference or waist-hip ratio? Coll Antropol 31, 387-393.

Amemiya S, Dobashi K, Urakami T, Sugihara S, Ohzeki T & Tajima N (2007) Metabolic syndrome in youths. Pediatr Diabetes 8, 48-54.

American Diabetes Association (2000) Type 2 diabetes in children and adolescents. Pediatrics 105, 671-680.

Anderson NK, Beerman KA, McGuire MA, Dasgupta N, Griinari JM, Williams J & McGuire MK (2005) Dietary Fat Type Influences Total Milk Fat Content in Lean Women. J. Nutr. 135, 416-421.

Arenz S, Ruckerl R, Koletzko B & von Kries R (2004) Breast-feeding and childhood obesity[mdash]a systematic review. 28, 1247-1256.

Armstrong J, Reilly JJ & Child Health Information Team (2002) Breastfeeding and lowering the risk of childhood obesity. Lancet 359, 2003-2004.

Ash S, Reeves M, Bauer J, Dover T, Vivanti A, Leong C, Sullivan TO & Capra S (2006) A randomised control trial comparing lifestyle groups, individual counselling and written information in the management of weight and health outcomes over 12 months. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 30, 1557-1564. Epub 2006 Mar 1514.

Astrup A (2001) The role of dietary fat in the prevention and treatment of obesity. Efficacy and safety of low-fat diets. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 25, S46-50.

Astrup A, Grunwald GK, Melanson EL, Saris WH & Hill JO (2000) The role of low-fat diets in body weight control: a meta-analysis of ad libitum dietary intervention studies. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 24, 1545-1552.

Atkinson RL (2007) Viruses as an etiology of obesity. Mayo Clin Proc 82, 1192-1198.

Austin SB (2001) Population-based prevention of eating disorders: an application of the Rose prevention model. Prev Med 32, 268-283.

Baird J, Fisher D, Lucas P, Kleijnen J, Roberts H & Law C (2005) Being big or growing fast: systematic review of size and growth in infancy and later obesity. BMJ 331, 929-.

Baker JL, Olsen LW & Sørensen TI (2007) Childhood body-mass index and the risk of coronary heart disease in adulthood. N Engl J Med 357, 2329-2337.

Barlow SE & and the Expert Committee (2007) Expert Committee Recommendations Regarding the Prevention, Assessment, and Treatment of Child and Adolescent Overweight and Obesity: Summary Report. Pediatrics 120, S164-192.

Basdevant A, Boute D & Borys JM (1999) Who should be educated? Education strategies: could children educate their parents? Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 23, May.

Bell LM, Watts K, Siafarikas A, Thompson A, Ratnam N, Bulsara M, Finn J, O'Driscoll G, Green DJ, Jones TW & Davis EA (2007) Exercise alone reduces insulin resistance in obese children independently of changes in body composition. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 92, 4230-4235.

Berkey CS, Rockett HR, Gillman MW, Field AE & Colditz GA (2003) Longitudinal study of skipping breakfast and weight change in adolescents. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 27, 1258-1266.

Bigal ME, Tsang A, Loder E, Serrano D, Reed ML & Lipton RB (2007) Body mass index and episodic headaches: a population-based study. Arch Intern Med 167, 1964-1970.

Bilsborough SA & Crowe TC (2003) Low-carbohydrate diets: what are the potential short- and long-term health implications? Asia Pac J Clin Nutr 12, 396-404.

Blair NJ, Thompson JMD, Black PN, Becroft DMO, Clark PM, Han DY, Robinson E, Waldie KE, Wild CJ & Mitchell EA (2007) Risk factors for obesity in 7-year-old European children: the Auckland Birthweight Collaborative Study. Arch Dis Child 92, 866-871.

Bland JM & Altman DG (1986) Statistical methods for assessing agreement between two methods of clinical measurement. Lancet 8476, 307-310.

Blissmer B, Riebe D, Dye G, Ruggiero L, Greene G & Caldwell M (2006) Health-related quality of life following a clinical weight loss intervention among overweight and obese adults: intervention and 24 month follow-up effects. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes 4, 43.

Bluford DA, Sherry B & Scanlon KS (2007) Interventions to prevent or treat obesity in preschool children: a review of evaluated programs. Obesity (Silver Spring) 15, 1356-1372.

Bouchard C, Pérusse L, Rice T & Rao DC (2003) Genetics of human obesity. In Handbook of Obesity [BC Bray GA, editor]. New York: Marcel Dekker.

Bouchard C & Tremblay A (1997) Genetic influences on the response of body fat and fat distribution to positive and negative energy balances in human identical twins. J Nutr Educ Behav 127, 943S-947S.

Boushey CJ, Edmonds JW & Welshimer KJ (2001) Estimates of the effects of folic-acid fortification and folic-acid bioavailability for women. Nutrition 17, 873-879.

Bowman SA, Gortmaker SL, Ebbeling CB, Pereira MA & Ludwig DS (2004) Effects of Fast-Food Consumption on Energy Intake and Diet Quality Among Children in a National Household Survey. Pediatrics 113, 112-118.

Brandon LJ (1998) Comparison of existing skinfold equations for estimating body fat in African American and white women. Am J Clin Nutr 67, 1155-1161.

Bravata DM, Sanders L, Huang J, Krumholz HM, Olkin I, Gardner CD & Bravata DM (2003) Efficacy and Safety of Low-Carbohydrate Diets: A Systematic Review. JAMA 289, 1837-1850.

Brehm BJ, Seeley RJ, Daniels SR & D'Alessio DA (2003) A Randomized Trial Comparing a Very Low Carbohydrate Diet and a Calorie-Restricted Low Fat Diet on Body Weight and Cardiovascular Risk Factors in Healthy Women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 88, 1617-1623.

Brehm BJ, Spang SE, Lattin BL, Seeley RJ, Daniels SR & D'Alessio DA (2005) The Role of Energy Expenditure in the Differential Weight Loss in Obese Women on Low-Fat and Low-Carbohydrate Diets. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 90, 1475-1482.

Caballero AE, Bousquet-Santos K, Robles-Osorio L, Montagnani V, Soodini G, Porramatikul S, Hamdy O, Nobrega AC & Horton ES (2007) Overweight Latino Children and Adolescents Have Marked Endothelial Dysfunction and Sub-clinical Vascular Inflammation in Association with Excess Body Fat and Insulin Resistance. Diabetes Care, Dec 14.

Caballero B, Clay T, Davis SM, Ethelbah B, Rock BH, Lohman T, Norman J, Story M, Stone EJ, Stephenson L, Stevens J & Pathways Study Research Group (2003) Pathways: a school-based, randomized controlled trial for the prevention of obesity in American Indian schoolchildren. Am J Clin Nutr 78, 1030-1038.

Calle EE, Rodriguez C, Walker-Thurmond K & Thun MJ (2003) Overweight, obesity, and mortality from cancer in a prospectively studied cohort of U.S. adults. N Engl J Med 348, 1625-1638.

Campanozzi A, Dabbas M, Ruiz JC, Ricour C & Goulet O (2008) Evaluation of lean body mass in obese children. Eur J Pediatr 167, 533-540.

Campbell K, Waters E, O'Meara S, Kelly S & Summerbell C (2002) Interventions for preventing obesity in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, CD001871.

Carey VJ, Walters EE, Colditz GA, Solomon CG, Willett WC, Rosner BA, Speizer FE & Manson JE (1997) Body fat distribution and risk of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus in women. The Nurses' Health Study. Am J Epidemiol 145, 614-619.

Carrel AL, Clark RR, Peterson S, Eickhoff J & Allen DB (2007) School-Based Fitness Changes Are Lost During the Summer Vacation. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 161, 561-564.

Carvalhal MM, Padez MC, Moreira PA & Rosado VM (2007) Overweight and obesity related to activities in Portuguese children, 7-9 years. Eur J Public Health 17, 42-46.

Catenacci VA & Wyatt HR (2007) The role of physical activity in producing and maintaining weight loss. Nat Clin Pract Endocrinol Metab 3, 518-529.

Cecil JE, Palmer CN, Fischer B, Watt P, Wallis DJ, Murrie I & Hetherington MM (2007) Variants of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma- and beta-adrenergic receptor genes are associated with measures of compensatory eating behaviors in young children. Am J Clin Nutr 86, 167-173.

Chan JM, Rimm EB, Colditz GA, Stampfer MJ & Willett WC (1994) Obesity, fat distribution, and weight gain as risk factors for clinical diabetes in men. Diabetes Care 17, 961-969.

Christakis NA & Fowler JH (2007) The Spread of Obesity in a Large Social Network over 32 Years. N Engl J Med 357, 370-379.

Clement K & Langin D (2007) Regulation of inflammation-related genes in human adipose tissue. J Intern Med 262, 422-430.

CNA (Conseil National de l'Alimentation) (1998) La place de l'éducation alimentaire dans les constructions des comportements alimentaires. Avis n°24.

Colapinto CK, Fitzgerald A, Taper LJ & Veugelers PJ (2007) Children's preference for large portions: prevalence, determinants, and consequences. J Am Diet Assoc 107, 1183-1190.

Cole TJ (1990) The LMS method for constructing normalized growth standards. Eur J Clin Nutr 44, 45-60.

Cole TJ (2004) Children grow and horses race: is the adiposity rebound a critical period for later obesity? BMC Pediatr 12, 6.

Cole TJ, Bellizzi MC, Flegal KM & Dietz WH (2000) Establishing a standard definition for child overweight and obesity worldwide: international survey. BMJ 320, 1240-1243.

Connelly JB, Duaso MJ & Butler G (2007) A systematic review of controlled trials of interventions to prevent childhood obesity and overweight: a realistic synthesis of the evidence. Public Health Nutr 121, 510-517.

Corica F, Corsonello A, Apolone G, Lucchetti M, Melchionda N, Marchesini G & and the QUOVADIS Study Group (2006) Construct Validity of the Short Form-36 Health Survey and Its Relationship with BMI in Obese Outpatients. Obesity 14, 1429-1437.

Couet C, Rigaud D, Volatier JL, Borys JM, Giachetti I, Cassuto DA & Reiser P (2000) Enquête Française de Consommation Alimentaire (II). La consommation des glucides: aspects quantitatifs et qualitatifs. Cah Nutr Diét 35, 257-268.

Crespo PS, Prieto Perera JA, Lodeiro FA & Azuara LA (2007) Metabolic syndrome in childhood. Public Health Nutr 10, 1121-1125.

Crowe TC (2005) Safety of low-carbohydrate diets. Obes Rev 6, 235-245.

Danielzik S, Pust S & Müller MJ (2007) School-based interventions to prevent overweight and obesity in prepubertal children: process and 4-years outcome evaluation of the Kiel Obesity Prevention Study (KOPS). Acta Paediatr Suppl 96, 19-25.

Datar A & Sturm R (2004) Physical Education in Elementary School and Body Mass Index: Evidence from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study. Am J Public Health 94, 1501-1506.

Davis MM, Gance-Cleveland B, Hassink S, Johnson R, Paradis G & Resnicow K (2007) Recommendations for Prevention of Childhood Obesity. Pediatrics 120, S229-253.

De Ferranti SD & Osganian SK (2007) Epidemiology of paediatric metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes mellitus. Diab Vasc Dis Res 4, 285-296.

De Jong N, Pijpers L, Bleeker JK & Ocke MC (2004) Potential intake of phytosterols/-stanols: results of a simulation study. Eur J Clin Nutr 58, 907-919.

de Onis M, Onyango AW, Borghi E, Siyam A, Nishida C & Siekmann J (2007) Development of a WHO growth reference for school-aged children and adolescents. Bull World Health Organ 85, 660-667.

De Peretti C & Castetbon K (2004) Surpoids et obésité chez les adolescents scolarisés en classe de troisième: Etudes et Resultats n°283. DREES.

Deheeger M & Rolland-Cachera MF (2004) Longitudinal study of anthropometric measurements in Parisian children aged ten months to 18 years. Arch Pediatr 11, 1139-1144.

Del-Rio-Navarro BE, Velazquez-Monroy O, Lara-Esqueda A, Violante-Ortiz R, Fanghanel G, Perez-Sanchez L & Berber A (2008) Obesity and metabolic risks in children. Arch Med Res 39, 215-221.

Deurenberg P, Andreoli A, Borg P, Kukkonen-Harjula K, de Lorenzo A, van Marken Lichtenbelt WD, Testolin G, Vigano R & Vollaard N (2001) The validity of predicted body fat percentage from body mass index and from impedance in samples of five European populations. Eur J Clin Nutr 55, 973-979.

Deurenberg P, Deurenberg-Yap M & Schouten FJ (2002) Validity of total and segmental impedance measurements for prediction of body composition across ethnic population groups. Eur J Clin Nutr 56, 214-220.

Dietz WH (2000) "Adiposity rebound": reality or epiphenomenon? Lancet 356, 2027-2028.

Doak CM, Visscher TL, Renders CM & Seidell JC (2006) The prevention of overweight and obesity in children and adolescents: a review of interventions and programmes. Obes Rev 7, 111-136.

Drewnowski A & Darmon N (2005) The economics of obesity: dietary energy density and energy cost. Am J Clin Nutr 82, 265S-273.

Dubern B, Bisbis S, Talbaoui H, Le Beyec J, Tounian P, Lacorte JM & Clément K (2007) Homozygous null mutation of the melanocortin-4 receptor and severe early-onset obesity. J Pediatr 150, 613-617.

Dubois L, Farmer A, Girard M & Peterson K (2007) Regular sugar-sweetened beverage consumption between meals increases risk of overweight among preschool-aged children. J Am Diet Assoc 107, 924-934.

DuBose KD, Eisenmann JC & Donnelly JE (2007) Aerobic fitness attenuates the metabolic syndrome score in normal-weight, at-risk-for-overweight, and overweight children. Pediatrics 120, e1262-1268.

Duerksen SC, Elder JP, Arredondo EM, Ayala GX, Slymen DJ, Campbell NR & Baquero B (2007) Family restaurant choices are associated with child and adult overweight status in Mexican-American families. J Am Diet Assoc 107, 849-853.

Duport N, Castetbon K, Guignon N & Hercberg S (2003) Corpulence des enfants scolarisés en grande section de maternelle en France métropolitaine et départements d'outre-mer: variations régionales et disparités urbaines. BEH 18-19, 82-84.

Dwyer T, Coonan WE, Leitch DR, Hetzel BS & Baghurst RA (1983) An investigation of the effects of daily physical activity on the health of primary school students in South Australia. Int J Epidemiol 12, 308-313.

Ebbeling CB, Feldman HA, Osganian SK, Chomitz VR, Ellenbogen SJ & Ludwig DS (2006) Effects of decreasing sugar-sweetened beverage consumption on body weight in adolescents: a randomized, controlled pilot study. Pediatrics 117, 673-680.

Ebbeling CB, Leidig MM, Sinclair KB, Seger-Shippee LG, Feldman HA & Ludwig DS (2005) Effects of an ad libitum low-glycemic load diet on cardiovascular disease risk factors in obese young adults. Am J Clin Nutr 81, 976-982.

Ebbeling CB, Pawlak DB & Ludwig DS (2002) Childhood obesity: public-health crisis, common sense cure. Lancet 360, 473-482.

Eckel RH, Hernandez TL, Bell ML, Weil KM, Shepard TY, Grunwald GK, Sharp TA, Francis CC & Hill JO (2006) Carbohydrate balance predicts weight and fat gain in adults. Am J Clin Nutr 83, 803-808.

Eisenmann JC, Heelan KA & Welk GJ (2004) Assessing Body Composition among 3- to 8-Year-Old Children: Anthropometry, BIA, and DXA. Obesity Res 12, 1633-1640.

Eriksson JG (2007) Epidemiology, genes and the environment: lessons learned from the Helsinki Birth Cohort Study. J Intern Med 261, 418-425.

Eriksson JG, Forsen T, Tuomilehto J, Osmond C & Barker DJP (2001) Early growth and coronary heart disease in later life: longitudinal study. BMJ 322, 949-953.

Eto C, Komiya S, Nakao T & Kikkawa K (2004) Validity of the body mass index and fat mass index as an indicator of obesity in children aged 3-5 year. J Physiol Anthropol Appl Human Sci 23, 25-30.

European Communities (1997a) Commission Recommendation of 29 July 1997 concerning the scientific aspects and the presentation of information necessary to support applications for the placing on the market of novel foods and novel food ingredients and the preparation of initial assessment reports under Regulation (EC) No 258/97 of the European Parliament and of the Council (97/618/EC). Official Journal (14/02/1997) (16/09/1997) L 253, 01-36.

European Communities (1997b) Regulation (EC) No 258/97 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 January 1997 concerning novel foods and novel food ingredients. Official Journal (14/02/1997) L 043, 1-6.

Euser AM, Finken MJ, Keijzer-Veen MG, Hille ET, Wit JM, Dekker FW & on behalf of the Dutch POPS-19 Collaborative Study Group (2005) Associations between prenatal and infancy weight gain and BMI, fat mass, and fat distribution in young adulthood: a prospective cohort study in males and females born very preterm. Am J Clin Nutr 81, 480-487.

Fagot-Campagna A, Pettitt DJ, Engelgau MM, Burrows NR, Geiss LS, Valdez R, Beckles GL, Saaddine J, Gregg EW, Williamson DF & Narayan KM (2000) Type 2 diabetes among North American children and adolescents: an epidemiologic review and a public health perspective. J Pediatr 136, 664-672.

Farooqi IS & O'Rahilly S (2006) Genetics of Obesity in Humans. Endocr Rev, er.2006-0040.

Feingold J (2008) L'obésité, réflexion d'un généticien. In Rapport du colloque "Ethique et déterminants de l'obésité de l'enfant" du 16 octobre 2007, pp. in press.

Feur E, Labeyrie C, Boucher J, Eïd A, Cabut S, Dib S, Castetbon K & Falissard B (2007) Indicateurs de santé chez les collégiens et lycéens du Val-de-Marne, France, en 2005 : excès pondéral, atteinte carieuse et risque de dépression. Bulletin épidémiologique hebdomadaire 4, 29-33.

Fisher JO & Kral TV (2007) Super-size me: Portion size effects on young children's eating. Physiol Behav.

Flatt JP (1995) Use and storage of carbohydrate and fat. Am J Clin Nutr 61, 952S-959S.

Flodmark CE, Marcus C & Britton M (2006) Interventions to prevent obesity in children and adolescents: a systematic literature review. Int J Obes 30, 579-589.

Fogelholm M & Kukkonen-Harjula K (2000) Does physical activity prevent weight gain--a systematic review. Obes Rev 1, 95-111.

Fogelholm M, Männistö S, Vartiainen E & Pietinen P (1996) Determinants of energy balance and overweight in Finland 1982 and 1992. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 20, 1097-1104.

Foster GD, Wyatt HR, Hill JO, McGuckin BG, Brill C, Mohammed BS, Szapary PO, Rader DJ, Edman JS & Klein S (2003) A Randomized Trial of a Low-Carbohydrate Diet for Obesity. N Engl J Med 348, 2082-2090.

Franks PW, Hanson RL, Knowler WC, Moffett C, Enos G, Infante AM, Krakoff J & Looker HC (2007) Childhood predictors of young-onset type 2 diabetes. Diabetes 56, 2964-2972.

Freedman DS, Kahn HS, Mei Z, Grummer-Strawn LM, Dietz WH, Srinivasan SR & Berenson GS (2007a) Relation of body mass index and waist-to-height ratio to cardiovascular disease risk factors in children and adolescents: the Bogalusa Heart Study. Am J Clin Nutr 86, 33-40.

Freedman DS, Mei Z, Srinivasan SR, Berenson GS & Dietz WH (2007b) Cardiovascular risk factors and excess adiposity among overweight children and adolescents: the Bogalusa Heart Study. J Pediatr 150, 12-17.

French SA, Story M, Fulkerson JA & Hannan P (2004) An Environmental Intervention to Promote Lower-Fat Food Choices in Secondary Schools: Outcomes of the TACOS Study. Am J Public Health 94, 1507-1512.

French SA & Wechsler H (2004) School-based research and initiatives: fruit and vegetable environment, policy, and pricing workshop. Prev Med 39, S101-107.

Friedewald WT, Levy RI & Fredrickson DS (1972) Estimation of the concentration of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol in plasma, without use of the preparative ultracentrifuge. Clin Chem 18, 499-502.

Gable S, Chang Y & Krull JL (2007) Television watching and frequency of family meals are predictive of overweight onset and persistence in a national sample of school-aged children. J Am Diet Assoc 107, 53-61.

Gaesser GA (2007) Carbohydrate quantity and quality in relation to body mass index. J Am Diet Assoc 107, 1768-1780.

Gale CR, Javaid MK, Robinson SM, Law CM, Godfrey KM & Cooper C (2007) Maternal size in pregnancy and body composition in children. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 92, 3904-3911.

Gallagher D, Visser M, Sepulveda D, Pierson RN, Harris T & Heymsfield SB (1996) How Useful Is Body Mass Index for Comparison of Body Fatness across Age, Sex, and Ethnic Groups? Am. J. Epidemiol. 143, 228-239.

Gallou-Kabani C & Junien C (2005) Nutritional Epigenomics of Metabolic Syndrome: New Perspective Against the Epidemic. Diabetes 54, 1899-1906.

Gardner CD, Kiazand A, Alhassan S, Kim S, Stafford RS, Balise RR, Kraemer HC & King AC (2007) Comparison of the Atkins, Zone, Ornish, and LEARN Diets for Change in Weight and Related Risk Factors Among Overweight Premenopausal Women: The A TO Z Weight Loss Study: A Randomized Trial. JAMA 297, 969-977.

Gerhard GT, Ahmann A, Meeuws K, McMurry MP, Duell PB & Connor WE (2004) Effects of a low-fat diet compared with those of a high-monounsaturated fat diet on body weight, plasma lipids and lipoproteins, and glycemic control in type 2 diabetes. Am J Clin Nutr 80, 668-673.

Ghoussaini M, Vatin V, Lecoeur C, Abkevich V, Younus A, Samson C, Wachter C, Heude B, Tauber M, Tounian P, Hercberg S, Weill J, Levy-Marchal C, Le Stunff C, Bougnères P, Froguel P & Meyre D (2007) Genetic study of the melanin-concentrating hormone receptor 2 in childhood and adulthood severe obesity. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 92, 4403-4409.

Gillman MW, Rifas-Shiman S, Berkey CS, Field AE & Colditz GA (2003) Maternal Gestational Diabetes, Birth Weight, and Adolescent Obesity. Pediatrics 111, e221-226.

Golan M, Kaufman V & Shahar DR (2006) Childhood obesity treatment: targeting parents exclusively v. parents and children. Br J Nutr 95, 1008-1015.

Greenlund KJ, Giles WH, Keenan NL, Croft JB & Mensah GA (2002) Physician advice, patient actions, and health-related quality of life in secondary prevention of stroke through diet and exercise. Stroke 33, 565-570.

Günther AL, Buyken AE & Kroke A (2006) The influence of habitual protein intake in early childhood on BMI and age at adiposity rebound: results from the DONALD Study. Int J Obes (Lond) 30, 1072-1079.

Guo SS, Wu W, Chumlea WC & Roche AF (2002) Predicting overweight and obesity in adulthood from body mass index values in childhood and adolescence. Am J Clin Nutr 76, 653-658.

Haby MM, Vos T, Carter R, Moodie M, Markwick A, Magnus A, Tay-Teo K-S & Swinburn B (2006) A new approach to assessing the health benefit from obesity interventions in children and adolescents: the assessing cost-effectiveness in obesity project. 30, 1463-1475.

Hainerová I, Larsen LH, Holst B, Finková M, Hainer V, Lebl J, Hansen T & Pedersen O (2007) Melanocortin 4 receptor mutations in obese Czech children: studies of prevalence, phenotype development, weight reduction response, and functional analysis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 92, 3689-3696.

Harrell JS, McMurray RG, Bangdiwala SI, Frauman AC, Gansky SA & Bradley CB (1996) Effects of a school-based intervention to reduce cardiovascular disease risk factors in elementary-school children: the Cardiovascular Health in Children (CHIC) study. J Pediatr 128, 797-805.

Haut Comité de Santé Publique (2000) Pour une politique nutritionnelle de santé publique en France. Enjeux et propositions. Rennes: Editions ENSP.

Hawkins SS & Law C (2006) A review of risk factors for overweight in preschool children: a policy perspective. Int J Pediatr Obes 1, 195-209.

He Q & Karlberg J (2002) Probability of Adult Overweight and Risk Change during the BMI Rebound Period. Obesity Res 10, 135-140.

Heinz G, Ko GT & Peterson LJ (2005) Waist circumference gain compared with waist circumference as predictors of type 2 diabetes risk. Am J Clin Nutr 82, 1134-.

Hellerstein MK (1999) De novo lipogenesis in humans : metabolic and regulatory aspects. Eur J Clin Nutr 53, S53-S65.

Heude B, Kettaneh A, Rakotovao R, Bresson JL, Borys JM, Ducimetière P & Charles MA (2005) Anthropometric relationships between parents and children throughout childhood: the Fleurbaix-Laventie Ville Santé Study. Int J Obes 29, 1222-1229.

Hill JO, Peters JC & Wyatt HR (2007) The Role of Public Policy in Treating the Epidemic of Global Obesity. 81, 772-775.

Hillier TA, Pedula KL, Schmidt MM, Mullen JA, Charles M-A & Pettitt DJ (2007) Childhood Obesity and Metabolic Imprinting: The ongoing effects of maternal hyperglycemia. Diabetes Care 30, 2287-2292.

Hirschler V, Roque MI, Calcagno ML, Gonzalez C & Aranda C (2007) Maternal waist circumference and the prediction of children's metabolic syndrome. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 161, 1205-1210.

Innis SM (2007) Dietary lipids in early development: relevance to obesity, immune and inflammatory disorders. Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes 14, 359-364.

INSERM, Institut Roche de l'obésité & Sofres (2001) Enquête ObEpi 2000 : le surpoids et l'obésité en France.

Institut de Recherche en Santé du Canada / Initiative sur la Santé pour la Population Canadienne (2003) Obesity in Canada: idenitfying policy priorities. Proceedings of a roundtable.

Institute of Medicine (U.S.). Committee on Prevention of Obesity in Children and Youth - Food and Nutrition Board - Board on Health Promotion and Disease Prevention (2005) Prevention of Childhood Obesity: Health in the Balance, Koplan JP, Liverman CT, Kraak VI, ed. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.

International Association for the Study of Obesity (2007) Childhood and Adolescent overweight in Europe.

Jackson-Leach R & Lobstein T (2006) Estimated burden of paediatric obesity and co-morbidities in Europe. Part 1. The increase in the prevalence of child obesity in Europe is itself increasing. Int J Pediatr Obes 1, 26-32.

Jakicic JM & Otto AD (2005) Physical activity considerations for the treatment and prevention of obesity. Am J Clin Nutr 82, 226S-229.

James J & Kerr D (2005) Prevention of childhood obesity by reducing soft drinks. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 29, S54-57.

James J, Thomas P, Cavan D & Kerr D (2004a) Preventing childhood obesity by reducing consumption of carbonated drinks: cluster randomised controlled trial. BMJ 328, 1237-1230.

James J, Thomas P, Cavan D & Kerr D (2004b) Preventing childhood obesity by reducing consumption of carbonated drinks: cluster randomised controlled trial. BMJ 328, 1237.

Jeffery RW & Harnack LJ (2007) Evidence implicating eating as a primary driver for the obesity epidemic. Diabetes 56, 2673-2676.

Jéquier E (2002) Pathways to obesity. Int J Obes 26, S12-S17.

Jéquier E & Schutz Y (1988) Energy expenditure in obesity and diabetes. Diabetes Metab Rev 4, 583-593.

Johnson-Down L, L'Abbe MR, Lee NS & Gray-Donald K (2003) Appropriate calcium fortification of the food supply presents a challenge. J Nutr 133, 2232-2238.

Johnston CS, Day CS & Swan PD (2002) Postprandial Thermogenesis Is Increased 100% on a High-Protein, Low-Fat Diet versus a High-Carbohydrate, Low-Fat Diet in Healthy, Young Women. J Am Coll Nutr 21, 55-61.

Jouret B, Ahluwalia N, Cristini C, Dupuy M, Nègre-Pages L, Grandjean H & Tauber M (2007) Factors associated with overweight in preschool-age children in southwestern France. Am J Clin Nutr 85, 1643-1649.

Junien C (2008) Les gènes à l'épreuve de l'environnement... et du temps. In Rapport du colloque "Ethique et déterminants de l'obésité de l'enfant" du 16 octobre 2007, pp. in press.

Kahn EB, Ramsey LT, Brownson RC, Heath GW, Howze EH, Powell KE, Stone EJ, Rajab MW & Corso P (2002) The effectiveness of interventions to increase physical activity. A systematic review. Am J Prev Med 22, 73-107.

Kain J, Uauy R, Albala, Vio F, Cerda R & Leyton B (2004) School-based obesity prevention in Chilean primary school children: methodology and evaluation of a controlled study. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 28, 483-493.

Kivimäki M, Lawlor DA, Smith GD, Elovainio M, Jokela M, Keltikangas-Järvinen L, Viikari JS & Raitakari OT (2007) Substantial intergenerational increases in body mass index are not explained by the fetal overnutrition hypothesis: the Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns Study. Am J Clin Nutr 86, 1509-1514.

Klein-Platat C, Wagner A, Haan MC, Arveiler D, Schlienger JL & Simon C (2003) Prevalence and sociodemographic determinants of overweight in young French adolescents. Diabetes Metab Res Rev 19, 153-158.

Knowler WC, Barrett-Connor E, Fowler SE, Hamman RF, Lachin JM, Walker EA, Nathan DM & Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group (2002) Reduction in the Incidence of Type 2 Diabetes with Lifestyle Intervention or Metformin. N Engl J Med 346, 393-403.

Kolotkin RL, Westman EC, Ostbye T, Crosby RD, Eisenson HJ & Binks M (2004) Does Binge Eating Disorder Impact Weight-Related Quality of Life? Obesity Res 12, 999-1005.

Kosti RI & Panagiotakos DB (2006) The epidemic of obesity in children and adolescents in the world. Cent Eur J Public Health 14, 151-159.

Kral TV, Stunkard AJ, Berkowitz RI, Stallings VA, Brown DD & Faith MS (2007) Daily food intake in relation to dietary energy density in the free-living environment: a prospective analysis of children born at different risk of obesity. Am J Clin Nutr 86, 41-47.

Kramer MS, Matush L, Vanilovich I, Platt RW, Bogdanovich N, Sevkovskaya Z, Dzikovich I, Shishko G, Collet JP, Martin RM, Davey Smith G, Gillman MW, Chalmers B, Hodnett E, Shapiro S & PROBIT Study Group (2007) Effects of prolonged and exclusive breastfeeding on child height, weight, adiposity, and blood pressure at age 6.5 y: evidence from a large randomized trial. Am J Clin Nutr 86, 1717-1721.

Kuczmarski RJ, Ogden CL, Grummer-Strawn LM, Flegal KM, Guo SS, Wei R, Mei Z, Curtin LR, Roche AF & Johnson CL (2000) CDC growth charts: United States. Adv Data 314, 1-27.

Kuhlmann K, Lindtner O, Bauch A, Ritter G, Woerner B & Niemann B (2005) Simulation of prospective phytosterol intake in Germany by novel functional foods. Br J Nutr 93, 377-385.

Kumanyika S, Tell GS, Shemanski L, Polak J & Savage PJ (1994) Eating patterns of community-dwelling older adults: the Cardiovascular Health Study. Ann Epidemiol 4, 404-415.

Labeyrie C & Niel X (2004) La santé des enfants scolarisés en CM2 à travers les enquêtes de santé scolaire en 2001-2002: Etudes et Résultats n°313. DREES.

Lamerz A, Kuepper-Nybelen J, Wehle C, Bruning N, Trost-Brinkhues G, Brenner H, Hebebrand J & Herpertz-Dahlmann B (2005) Social class, parental education, and obesity prevalence in a study of six-year-old children in Germany. Int J Obes 29, 373-380.

Laplace JP (2008) L'Homme victime de son cerveau ? Bulletin d'information mensuel de l'Institut Français pour la Nutrition 20.

Larsson I, Henning B, Lindroos AK, Naslund I, Sjostrom CD & Sjostrom L (2006) Optimized predictions of absolute and relative amounts of body fat from weight, height, other anthropometric predictors, and age. Am J Clin Nutr 83, 252-259.

Latner JD, Rosewall JK & Simmonds MB (2007) Childhood obesity stigma: association with television, videogame, and magazine exposure. Body Image 4, 147-155.

Lau DC, Douketis JD, Morrison KM, Hramiak IM, Sharma AM, Ur E & Obesity Canada Clinical Practice Guidelines Expert Panel (2007) Canadian clinical practice guidelines on the management and prevention of obesity in adults and children [summary]. CMAJ 176, S1-13.

Le Pen C, Levy E, Loos F, Banzet M & Basdevant A (1998) "Specific" scale compared with "generic" scale: a double measurement of the quality of life in a French community sample of obese subjects. J Epidemiol Community Health 52, 445-450.

Lee S, Bacha F, Gungor N & Arslanian S (2008) Comparison of different definitions of pediatric metabolic syndrome: relation to abdominal adiposity, insulin resistance, adiponectin, and inflammatory biomarkers. J Pediatr 152, 177-184.

Lee WW (2007) An overview of pediatric obesity. Pediatr Diabetes 8, 76-87.

Lioret S, Maire B, Volatier JL & Charles MA (2007) Child overweight in France and its relationship with physical activity, sedentary behaviour and socioeconomic status. Eur J Clin Nutr 61, 509-516.

Lioret S, Volatier JL, Basdevant A, Pouillot R, Maffre J & Martin A (2001) Prévalence de l'obésité infantile en France : aspects démographiques, géographiques et socioéconomiques d'après l'enquête INCA. Cah Nutr Diet 36, 405-411.

Lobstein T, Baur L, Uauy R & IASO International Obesity TaskForce (2004) Obesity in children and young people: a crisis in public health. Obes Rev 5, 4-104.

Ludwig DS, Peterson KE & Gortmaker SL (2001) Relation between consumption of sugar-sweetened drinks and childhood obesity: a prospective, observational analysis. Lancet 357, 505-508.

Maffeis C & Castellani M (2007) Physical activity: an effective way to control weight in children? Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis 17, 394-408.

Maffeis C, Silvagni D, Bonadonna R, Grezzani A, Banzato C & Tatò L (2007) Fat cell size, insulin sensitivity, and inflammation in obese children. J Pediatr 151, 647-652.

Malik VS, Schulze MB & Hu FB (2006) Intake of sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain: a systematic review. Am J Clin Nutr 84, 274-288.

Manios Y, Kafatos A & Mamalakis G (1998) The effects of a health education intervention initiated at first grade over a 3 year period: physical activity and fitness indices. Health Educ. Res. 13, 593-606.

Manios Y, Kafatos A & Preventive Medicine and Nutrition Clinic University of Crete Research Team (2006) Health and nutrition education in primary schools in Crete: 10 years follow-up of serum lipids, physical activity and macronutrient intake. Br J Nutr 95, 568-575.

Manson JE, Colditz GA, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC, Rosner B, Monson RR, Speizer FE & Hennekens CH (1990) A prospective study of obesity and risk of coronary heart disease in women. N Engl J Med 322, 882-889.

Mast M, Langnäse K, Labitzke K, Bruse U, Preuss U & Müller MJ (2002) Use of BMI as a measure of overweight and obesity in a field study on 5-7 year old children. Eur J Nutr 41, 61-67.

Mathias SD, Williamson CL, Colwell HH, Cisternas MG, Pasta DJ, Stolshek BS & Patrick DL (1997) Assessing health-related quality-of-life and health state preference in persons with obesity: a validation study. Qual Life Res 6, 311-322.

Matthews DR, Hosker JP, Rudenski AS, Naylor BA, Treacher DF & Turner RC (1985) Homeostasis model assessment: insulin resistance and beta-cell function from fasting plasma glucose and insulin concentrations in man. Diabetologia 28, 412-419.

McCarthy A, Hughes R, Tilling K, Davies D, Smith GD & Ben-Shlomo Y (2007) Birth weight; postnatal, infant, and childhood growth; and obesity in young adulthood: evidence from the Barry Caerphilly Growth Study. Am J Clin Nutr 86, 907-913.

McCarthy HD & Ashwell M (2006) A study of central fatness using waist-to-height ratios in UK children and adolescents over two decades supports the simple message--'keep your waist circumference to less than half your height'. Int J Obes (Lond) 30, 988-992.

McCarthy HD, Cole TJ, Fry T, Jebb SA & Prentice AM (2006) Body fat reference curves for children. Int J Obes 30, 598-602.

McLaughlin T, Carter S, Lamendola C, Abbasi F, Yee G, Schaaf P, Basina M & Reaven G (2006) Effects of moderate variations in macronutrient composition on weight loss and reduction in cardiovascular disease risk in obese, insulin-resistant adults. Am J Clin Nutr 84, 813-821.

Meadows K, Steen N, McColl E, Eccles M, Shiels C, Hewison J & Hutchinson A (1996) The Diabetes Health Profile (DHP): a new instrument for assessing the psychosocial profile of insulin requiring patients--development and psychometric evaluation. Qual Life Res 5, 242-254.

Meadows KA, Abrams C & Sandbaek A (2000) Adaptation of the Diabetes Health Profile (DHP-1) for use with patients with Type 2 diabetes mellitus: psychometric evaluation and cross-cultural comparison. Diabet Med 17, 572-580.

Menschik D, Ahmed S, Alexander MH & Blum RW (2008) Adolescent Physical Activities as Predictors of Young Adult Weight. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 162, 29-33.

Ministère de l’agriculture et de la pêche, Ministère de la santé et des solidarités & Ministère de l’économie des finances et de l’industrie (2005) Avis du Conseil National de l'Alimentation sur la prévention de l'obésité infantile. Avis n°54.

Ministère de l’agriculture et de la pêche, Ministère de la santé et des solidarités & Ministère de l’économie des finances et de l’industrie (2006) Avis du Conseil National de l'Alimentation. Propositions de mesures pratiques pour la mise en oeuvre d'une Stratégie nationale de prévention de l'obésité infantile. Avis n°55.

Ministère de la Santé et des Solidarités (2006) Deuxième Programme national nutrition santé – 2006-2010 –. Actions et mesures.

Monneuse MO, Bellisle F & Koppert G (1997) Eating habits, food and health related attitudes and beliefs reported by French students. Eur J Clin Nutr 51, 46-53.

Monteiro PO & Victora CG (2005) Rapid growth in infancy and childhood and obesity in later life--a systematic review. Obes Rev 6, 143-154.

Morris J & Twaddle S (2007) Anorexia nervosa. BMJ 334, 894-898.

Morrison JA, Friedman LA & Gray-McGuire C (2007) Metabolic syndrome in childhood predicts adult cardiovascular disease 25 years later: the Princeton Lipid Research Clinics Follow-up Study. Pediatrics 120, 340-345.

Morrison JA, Friedman LA, Wang P & Glueck CJ (2008) Metabolic syndrome in childhood predicts adult metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes mellitus 25 to 30 years later. J Pediatr 152, 201-206.

Moschonis G, Grammatikaki E & Manios Y (2007) Perinatal predictors of overweight at infancy and preschool childhood: the GENESIS study. Int J Obes, Dec 4.

Mo-suwan L, Pongprapai S, Junjana C & Puetpaiboon A (1998) Effects of a controlled trial of a school-based exercise program on the obesity indexes of preschool children. Am J Clin Nutr 68, 1006-1011.

Mourao DM, Bressan J, Campbell WW & Mattes RD (2007) Effects of food form on appetite and energy intake in lean and obese young adults. Int J Obes 31, 1688-1695.

Muller MJ, Asbeck I, Mast M, Langnase K & Grund A (2001) Prevention of obesity--more than an intention. Concept and first results of the Kiel Obesity Prevention Study (KOPS). Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 25, S66-74.

Müller MJ, Danielzik S & Pust S (2005) School- and family-based interventions to prevent overweight in children. Proc Nutr Soc 64, 249-254.

Musick T & Cymet TC (2006) Childhood obesity: normal variant or serious illness? Compr Ther 32, 147-149.

Must A, Dallal GE & Dietz WH (1991) Reference data for obesity: 85th and 95th percentiles of body mass index (wt/ht2) and triceps skinfold thickness. Am J Clin Nutr 53, 839-846.

Nakache JP & Guéguen A (2005) Analyse multidimensionnelle de données incomplètes. Revue Statistique Appliquée LIII, 35-62.

National Audit Office (2001) Tackling obesity in england. The stationery Office. London, UK.

National Board of Health (2003) National action plan against obesity. Recommandations and perspectives.

National Food Administration (July 2005) Background material to the action plan for healthy dietary habits and increased physical activity.

Neovius M, Linné Y & Rossner S (2005) BMI, waist-circumference and waist-hip-ratio as diagnostic tests for fatness in adolescents. Int J Obes (Lond) 29, 163-169.

Nicholls D & Viner R (2005) Eating disorders and weight problems. BMJ 330, 950-953.

Nickols-Richardson SM, Coleman MD, Volpe JJ & Hosig KW (2005) Perceived hunger is lower and weight loss is greater in overweight premenopausal women consuming a low-carbohydrate/high-protein vs high-carbohydrate/low-fat diet. J Am Diet Assoc 105, 1433-1437.

Novotny R, Coleman P, Tenorio L, Davison N, Camacho T, Ramirez V, Vijayadeva V, Untalan P & Tudela MD (2007) Breastfeeding is associated with lower body mass index among children of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands. J Am Diet Assoc 107, 1743-1746.

O'Brien KS, Hunter JA, Halberstadt J & Anderson J (2007) Body image and explicit and implicit anti-fat attitudes: the mediating role of physical appearance comparisons. Body Image 4, 249-256.

O'Connor TM, Yang S-J & Nicklas TA (2006) Beverage Intake Among Preschool Children and Its Effect on Weight Status. Pediatrics 118, e1010-1018.

Oken E & Gillman MW (2003) Fetal origins of obesity. Obes Res 11, 496-506.

Oken E, Taveras EM, Kleinman KP, Rich-Edwards JW & Gillman MW (2007) Gestational weight gain and child adiposity at age 3 years. Am J Obstet Gynecol 196, 322.

Ong KK, Ahmed ML, Emmett PM, Preece MA & Dunger DB (2000) Association between postnatal catch-up growth and obesity in childhood: prospective cohort study. BMJ 320, 967-971.

Ong KK & Loos RJ (2006) Rapid infancy weight gain and subsequent obesity: systematic reviews and hopeful suggestions. Acta Paediatr 95, 904-908.

Oppert JM (2003) Sédentarité et obésité. In Pour une approche scientifique de l'obésité, pp. 51-63: Ed médicales et scientifiques Elsevier.

Oswal A & Yeo GS (2007) The leptin melanocortin pathway and the control of body weight: lessons from human and murine genetics. Obes Rev 8, 293-306.

Paineau DL, Beaufils F, Boulier A, Cassuto D-A, Chwalow J, Combris P, Couet C, Jouret B, Lafay L, Laville M, Mahe S, Ricour C, Romon M, Simon C, Tauber M, Valensi P, Chapalain V, Zourabichvili O & Bornet F (2008) Family Dietary Coaching to Improve Nutritional Intakes and Body Weight Control: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 162, 34-43.

Parsons TJ, Power C & Manor O (2001) Fetal and early life growth and body mass index from birth to early adulthood in 1958 British cohort: longitudinal study. BMJ 323, 1331-1335.

Parsons TJ, Power C & Manor O (2003) Infant feeding and obesity through the lifecourse. Arch Dis Child 88, 793-794.

Peeters A, Barendregt JJ, Willekens F, Mackenbach JP, Mamun AA, Bonneux L & for NEDCOM tNEaDCoMRG (2003) Obesity in Adulthood and Its Consequences for Life Expectancy: A Life-Table Analysis. Ann Intern Med 138, 24-32.

Pereira MA, FitzGerald SJ, Gregg EW, Joswiak ML, Ryan WJ, Suminski RR, Utter AC & Zmuda JM (1997a) A Collection of Physical Activity Questionnaires for Health-Related Research: the Modifiable Activity Questionnaire for Adolescents. Med Sci Sports Exerc 29, S79-S82.

Pereira MA, FitzGerald SJ, Gregg EW, Joswiak ML, Ryan WJ, Suminski RR, Utter AC & Zmuda JM (1997b) A Collection of Physical Activity Questionnaires for Health-Related Research: the MONICA Optional Study of Physical Activity (MOSPA). Med Sci Sports Exerc 29, S162-S169.

Perichart-Perera O, Balas-Nakash M, Schiffman-Selechnik E, Barbato-Dosal A & Vadillo-Ortega F (2007) Obesity increases metabolic syndrome risk factors in school-aged children from an urban school in Mexico city. J Am Diet Assoc 107, 81-91.

Peterson K, Silverstein J, Kaufman F & Warren-Boulton E (2007) Management of type 2 diabetes in youth: an update. Am Fam Physician 76, 658-664.

Pirozzo S, Summerbell C, Cameron C & Glasziou P (2003) Should we recommend low-fat diets for obesity? Obes Rev 4, 83-90.

Powell JJ, Tucker L, Fisher AG & Wilcox K (1994) The effects of different percentages of dietary fat intake, exercise, and calorie restriction on body composition and body weight in obese females. Am J Health Promot 8, 442-448.

Powell LM, Szczypka G & Chaloupka FJ (2007) Exposure to Food Advertising on Television Among US Children. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 161, 553-560.

Prentice AM & Jebb SA (1995) Obesity in Britain: gluttony or sloth? BMJ 311, 437-439.

Rankinen T, Zuberi A, Chagnon YC, Weisnagel SJ, Argyropoulos G, Walts B, Perusse L & Bouchard C (2006) The Human Obesity Gene Map: The 2005 Update. Obesity 14, 529-644.

Rasmussen LG, Larsen TM, Mortensen PK, Due A & Astrup A (2007) Effect on 24-h energy expenditure of a moderate-fat diet high in monounsaturated fatty acids compared with that of a low-fat, carbohydrate-rich diet: a 6-mo controlled dietary intervention trial. Am J Clin Nutr 85, 1014-1022.

Reece EA (2008) Perspectives on obesity, pregnancy and birth outcomes in the United States: the scope of the problem. Am J Obstet Gynecol 198, 23-27.

Reeves GK, Pirie K, Beral V, Green J, Spencer E & Bull D (2007) Million Women Study Collaboration.Cancer incidence and mortality in relation to body mass index in the Million Women Study: cohort study. BMJ 335, 1134.

Reilly JJ (2006) Diagnostic accuracy of the BMI for age in paediatrics. Int J Obes 30, 595-597.

Reinehr T, de Sousa G, Toschke AM & Andler W (2007) Comparison of metabolic syndrome prevalence using eight different definitions: a critical approach. Arch Dis Child 92, 1067-1072.

Rexrode KM, Carey VJ, Hennekens CH, Walters EE, Colditz GA, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC & Manson JE (1998) Abdominal adiposity and coronary heart disease in women. JAMA 280, 1843-1848.

Rey-López JP, Vicente-Rodríguez G, Biosca M & Moreno LA (2007) Sedentary behaviour and obesity development in children and adolescents. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis, Dec 13.

Richard G (2008) Obésité de l'enfant et facteurs socio-économiques. In Rapport du colloque "Ethique et déterminants de l'obésité de l'enfant" du 16 octobre 2007, pp. in press.

Rigaud D, Giachetti I, Deheeger M, Borys JM, Volatier JL, Lemoine A & Cassuto DA (1997) Enquête Française de Consommation Alimentaire (I). Energie et macronutriments. Cah Nutr Diét 32, 379-389.

Rimm EB, Stampfer MJ, Giovannucci E, Ascherio A, Spiegelman D, Colditz GA & Willett WC (1995) Body size and fat distribution as predictors of coronary heart disease among middle-aged and older US men. Am J Epidemiol 141, 1117-1127.

Ritchie LD, Welk G, Styne D, Gerstein DE & Crawford PB (2005) Family environment and pediatric overweight: what is a parent to do? J Am Diet Assoc 105, S70-79.

Robinson TN (1999) Reducing children's television viewing to prevent obesity: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 282, 1561-1567.

Robinson TN, Borzekowski DLG, Matheson DM & Kraemer HC (2007) Effects of Fast Food Branding on Young Children's Taste Preferences. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 161, 792-797.

Robinson TN, Killen JD, Kraemer HC, Wilson DM, Matheson DM, Haskell WL, Pruitt LA, Powell TM, Owens AS, Thompson NS, Flint-Moore NM, Davis GJ, Emig KA, Brown RT, Rochon J, Green S & Varady A (2003) Dance and reducing television viewing to prevent weight gain in African-American girls: the Stanford GEMS pilot study. Ethn Dis 13, S65-77.

Roblin L (2007) Childhood obesity: food, nutrient, and eating-habit trends and influences. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 32, 635-645.

Roeykens J, Rogers R, Meeusen R, Magnus L, Borms J & de Meirleir K (1998) Validity and reliability in a Flemish population of the WHO-MONICA Optional Study of Physical Activity Questionnaire. Med Sci Sports Exerc 30, 1071-1075.

Rogers I & EURO-BLCS Study Group (2003) The influence of birthweight and intrauterine environment on adiposity and fat distribution in later life. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 27, 755-777.

Rolland-Cachera MF, Sempé M, Guilloud-Bataille M, Patois E, Péquignot-Guggenbuhl F, Fautrad V (1982) Adiposity indices in children. Am J Clin Nutr 36, 178-184.

Rolland-Cachera MF, Castetbon K, Arnault N, Bellisle F, Romano MC, Lehingue Y, Frelut ML & Hercberg S (2002) Body mass index in 7-9-y-old French children: frequency of obesity, overweight and thinness. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 26, 1610-1616.

Rolland-Cachera MF, Cole TJ, Sempe M, Tichet J, Rossignol C & Charraud A (1991) Body Mass Index variations: centiles from birth to 87 years. Eur J Clin Nutr 45, 13-21.

Rolland-Cachera MF, Deheeger M, Akrout M & Bellisle F (1995) Influence of macronutrients on adiposity development: a follow up study of nutrition and growth from 10 months to 8 years of age. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 19, 573-578.

Rolland-Cachera MF, Deheeger M, Bellisle F, Sempé M, Guilloud-Bataille M & Patois E (1984) Adiposity rebound in children: a simple indicator for predicting obesity. Am J Clin Nutr 39, 129-135.

Rolland-Cachera MF, Deheeger M, Bellisle; F, Reilly JJ, Dorosty A & Emmett PM (2001) Early Adiposity Rebound Is Not Associated With Energy or Fat Intake in Infancy. Pediatrics 108, 218-219.

Rolland-Cachera MF, Deheeger M, Maillot M & Bellisle F (2006) Early adiposity rebound: causes and consequences for obesity in children and adults. Int J Obes 30, S11-S17.

Romon M, Duhamel A, Collinet N & Weill J (2005) Influence of social class on time trends in BMI distribution in 5-year-old French children from 1989 to 1999. Int J Obes 29, 54-59.

Rozin P, Fischler C, Imada S, Sarubin A & Wrzesniewski A (1999) Attitudes to food and the role of food in life in the U.S.A., Japan, Flemish Belgium and France: possible implications for the diet-health debate. Appetite 33, 163-180.

Rozin P, Kabnick K, Pete E, Fischler C & Shields C (2003) The ecology of eating: smaller portion sizes in France Than in the United States help explain the French paradox. Psychol Sci 14, 450-454.

Rukavina PB & Li W (2008) School physical activity interventions: do not forget about obesity bias. Obes Rev 9, 67-75.

Saelens BE, Seeley RJ, van Schaick K, Donnelly LF & O'Brien KJ (2007) Visceral abdominal fat is correlated with whole-body fat and physical activity among 8-y-old children at risk of obesity. Am J Clin Nutr 85, 46-53.

Sahota P, Rudolf MC, Dixey R, Hill AJ, Barth JH & Cade J (2001) Randomised controlled trial of primary school based intervention to reduce risk factors for obesity. BMJ 323, 1029-1032.

Santoro N, Perrone L, Cirillo G, Raimondo P, Amato A, Brienza C & Del Giudice EM (2007) Effect of the melanocortin-3 receptor C17A and G241A variants on weight loss in childhood obesity. Am J Clin Nutr 85, 950-953.

Saris WHM, Astrup A, Prentice AM, Zunft HJ, Formiguera X, Verboeket-van de Venne WPHG, Raben A, Poppitt SD, Seppelt B, Johnston S, Vasilaras TH & Keogh GF (2000) Randomised controlled trial of changes in dietary carbohydrate/fat ratio and simple vs. complex carbohydrates on body weight and blood lipids: the CARMEN study. Int J Obes 10, 1310-1318.

Sato E, Suzukamo Y, Miyashita M & Kazuma K (2004) Development of a diabetes diet-related quality-of-life scale. Diabetes Care 27, 1271-1275.

Savige G, MacFarlane A, Ball K, Worsley A & Crawford D (2007) Snacking behaviours of adolescents and their association with skipping meals. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity 4, 36.

Savoye M, Shaw M, Dziura J, Tamborlane WV, Rose P, Guandalini C, Goldberg-Gell R, Burgert TS, Cali AMG, Weiss R & Caprio S (2007) Effects of a Weight Management Program on Body Composition and Metabolic Parameters in Overweight Children: A Randomized Controlled Trial. JAMA 297, 2697-2704.

Schneider M, Dunton GF & Cooper DM (2007) Media Use and Obesity in Adolescent Females. Obesity 15, 2328-2335.

Schoeller DA & Buchholz AC (2005) Energetics of obesity and weight control: does diet composition matter? J Am Diet Assoc 105, S24-28.

Seng Lee Y, Kok Seng Poh L, Lay Kee Kek B & Yin Loke K (2007) The Role of Melanocortin 3 Receptor Gene in Childhood Obesity. Diabetes 56, 2622-2630.

Sharma M (2006) School-based interventions for childhood and adolescent obesity. Obes Rev 7, 261-269.

Siega-Riz A, Popkin B & Carson T (1998) Trends in breakfast consumption for children in the United States from 1965-1991. Am J Clin Nutr 67, 748S-756.

Silverman BL, Rizzo TA, Cho NH & Metzger BE (1998) Long-term effects of the intrauterine environment. The Northwestern University Diabetes in Pregnancy Center. Diabetes Care 21, B142-149.

Simon C (2003) Alimentation et obésité. In Pour une approche scientifique de l'obésité, pp. 65-77: Ed médicales et scientifiques Elsevier.

Sinha R, Fisch G, Teague B, Tamborlane WV, Banyas B, Allen K, Savoye M, Rieger V, Taksali S, Barbetta G, Sherwin RS & Caprio S (2002) Prevalence of Impaired Glucose Tolerance among Children and Adolescents with Marked Obesity. N Engl J Med 346, 802-810.

Snyder EE, Walts B, Pérusse L, Chagnon YC, Weisnagel SJ, Rankinen T & Bouchard C (2004) The human obesity gene map: the 2003 update. Obes Res 12, 369-439.

Spear BA, Barlow SE, Ervin C, Ludwig DS, Saelens BE, Schetzina KE & Taveras EM (2007) Recommendations for Treatment of Child and Adolescent Overweight and Obesity. Pediatrics 120, S254-288.

Spiegel SA & Foulk D (2006) Reducing overweight through a multidisciplinary school-based intervention. Obesity (Silver Spring) 14, 88-96.

Steinhausen H-C (2002) The Outcome of Anorexia Nervosa in the 20th Century. Am J Psychiatry 159, 1284-1293.

Stern L, Iqbal N, Seshadri P, Chicano KL, Daily DA, McGrory J, Williams M, Gracely EJ & Samaha FF (2004) The Effects of Low-Carbohydrate versus Conventional Weight Loss Diets in Severely Obese Adults: One-Year Follow-up of a Randomized Trial. Ann Intern Med 140, 778-785.

Story M, Snyder MP, Anliker J, Weber JL, Cunningham-Sabo L, Stone EJ, Chamberlain A, Ethelbah B, Suchindran C & Ring K (2003) Changes in the nutrient content of school lunches: results from the Pathways study. Prev Med 37, S35-45.

Strychar I (2006) Diet in the management of weight loss. CMAJ 174, 56-63.

Styles JL, Meier A, Sutherland LA & Campbell MK (2007) Parents' and caregivers' concerns about obesity in young children: a qualitative study. Fam Community Health 30, 279-295.

Summerbell CD, Waters E, Edmunds LD, Kelly S, Brown T & Campbell KJ (2005) Interventions for preventing obesity in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, CD001871.

Sun SS, Liang R, Huang TT, Daniels SR, Arslanian S, Liu K, Grave GD & Siervogel RM (2008) Childhood obesity predicts adult metabolic syndrome: the Fels Longitudinal Study. J Pediatr 152, 191-200.

Suojanen A, Raulio S & Ovaskainen ML (2002) Liberal fortification of foods: the risks. A study relating to Finland. J Epidemiol Community Health 56, 259-264.

Tamir D, Feurstein A, Brunner S, Halfon ST, Reshef A & Palti H (1990) Primary prevention of cardiovascular diseases in childhood: changes in serum total cholesterol, high density lipoprotein, and body mass index after 2 years of intervention in Jerusalem schoolchildren age 7-9 years. Prev Med 19, 22-30.

Taylor PD & Poston L (2007) Developmental programming of obesity in mammals. Exp Physiol 92, 287-298.

Taylor RW, McAuley KA, Barbezat W, Strong A, Williams SM & Mann JI (2007) APPLE Project: 2-y findings of a community-based obesity prevention program in primary school age children. Am J Clin Nutr 86, 735-742.

Testa MA, Simonson DC & Turner RR (1998) Valuing quality of life and improvements in glycemic control in people with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 21, C44-52.

Thompson DR, Obarzanek E, Franko DL, Barton BA, Morrison J, Biro FM, Daniels SR & Striegel-Moore RH (2007) Childhood overweight and cardiovascular disease risk factors: the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Growth and Health Study. J Pediatr 150, 18-25.

Thompson OM, Ballew C, Resnicow K, Must A, Bandini LG, Cyr H & Dietz WH (2004) Food purchased away from home as a predictor of change in BMI z-score among girls. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 28, 282-289.

Tobias JH, Steer CD, Vilarino-Güell C & Brown MA (2007) Effect of an estrogen receptor-alpha intron 4 polymorphism on fat mass in 11-year-old children. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 92, 2286-2291.

Toschke AM, Martin RM, von Kries R, Wells J, Smith GD & Ness AR (2007) Infant feeding method and obesity: body mass index and dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry measurements at 9-10 y of age from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC). Am J Clin Nutr 85, 1578-1585.

Tounian P, Aggoun Y, Dubern B, Varille V, Guy-Grand B, Sidi D, Girardet JP & Bonnet D (2001) Presence of increased stiffness of the common carotid artery and endothelial dysfunction in severely obese children: a prospective study. Lancet 358, 1400-1404.

Tuomilehto J, Lindström J, Eriksson JG, Valle TT, Hämäläinen H, Ilanne-Parikka P, Keinänen-Kiukaanniemi S, Laakso M, Louheranta A, Rastas M, Salminen V, Uusitupa M & Finnish Diabetes Prevention Study Group (2001) Prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus by changes in lifestyle among subjects with impaired glucose tolerance. N Engl J Med 344, 1343-1350.

Turnbaugh PJ, Ley RE, Mahowald MA, Magrini V, R ME & Gordon JI (2006) An obesity-associated gut microbiome with increased capacity for energy harvest. Nature 444, 1027-1031.

Unité de surveillance et d’épidémiologie nutritionnelle (Usen) (2007) Étude nationale nutrition santé (ENNS, 2006) – Situation nutritionnelle en France en 2006 selon les indicateurs d’objectif et les repères du Programme national nutrition santé (PNNS): Institut de veille sanitaire, Université de Paris 13, Conservatoire national des arts et métiers.

University of Sydney (March 2005) Best options for promoting healthy weight and preventing weight gain in NSW. Sidney.

van den Hurk K, van Dommelen P, van Buuren S, Verkerk PH & Hirasing RA (2007) Prevalence of overweight and obesity in the Netherlands in 2003 compared to 1980 and 1997. Arch Dis Child 92, 992-995.

Van Horn L, Obarzanek E, Friedman LA, Gernhofer N & Barton B (2005) Children's Adaptations to a Fat-Reduced Diet: The Dietary Intervention Study in Children (DISC). Pediatrics 115, 1723-1733.

Vandongen R, Jenner DA, Thompson C, Taggart AC, Spickett EE, Burke V, Beilin LJ, Milligan RA & Dunbar DL (1995) A controlled evaluation of a fitness and nutrition intervention program on cardiovascular health in 10- to 12-year-old children. Prev Med 24, 9-22.

Vickers MH, Breier BH, McCarthy D & Gluckman PD (2003) Sedentary behavior during postnatal life is determined by the prenatal environment and exacerbated by postnatal hypercaloric nutrition. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 285, R271-273.

Vickers MH, Krechowec SO & Breier BH (2007) Is later obesity programmed in utero? Curr Drug Targets 8, 923-934.

Vieweg VR, Johnston CH, Lanier JO, Fernandez A & Pandurangi AK (2007) Correlation between high risk obesity groups and low socioeconomic status in school children. South Med J 100, 8-13.

Vincelet C, Galli J & Gremy I (2006) Surpoids et obésité en Ile-de-France. Analyse à partir des données de l’enquête décennale santé de l’Insee 2002-2003: Observatoire régional de santé d’Ile-de-France, Union régionale des caisses d’assurance maladie d’Ile-de-France.

Viricel J, Bossu C, Galusca B, Kadem M, Germain N, Nicolau A, Millot L, Vergely N, Lassandre S, Carrot G, Lang F, Estour B & ;: (2005) Retrospective study of anorexia nervosa: reduced mortality and stable recovery rates. Presse Med 34, 1505-1510.

von Kries R, Bolte G, Baghi L, Toschke AM & the GME Study Group (2007) Parental smoking and childhood obesity is maternal smoking in pregnancy the critical exposure? Int J Epidemiol, Dec 3.

von Kries R, Koletzko B, Sauerwald T & von Mutius E (2000) Does breast-feeding protect against childhood obesity? Adv Exp Med Biol 478, 29-39.

Wake M, Nicholson JM, Hardy P & Smith K (2007) Preschooler Obesity and Parenting Styles of Mothers and Fathers: Australian National Population Study. Pediatrics 120, e1520-1527.

Wang Y & Lobstein T (2006) Worldwide trends in childhood overweight and obesity. Int J Pediatr Obes 1, 11-25.

Wang Y, Rimm EB, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC & Hu FB (2005) Comparison of abdominal adiposity and overall obesity in predicting risk of type 2 diabetes among men. Am J Clin Nutr 81, 555-563.

Wannamethee SG, Shaper AG & Walker M (2005) Overweight and obesity and weight change in middle aged men: impact on cardiovascular disease and diabetes. J Epidemiol Community Health 59, 134-139.

Ware JEJ & Sherbourne CD (1992) The MOS 36-item short-form health survey (SF-36). I. Conceptual framework and item selection. Med Care 30, 473-483.

Warren JM, Henry CJ, Lightowler HJ, Bradshaw SM & Perwaiz S (2003) Evaluation of a pilot school programme aimed at the prevention of obesity in children. Health Promot Int 18, 287-296.

Whitaker RC (2004) Predicting preschooler obesity at birth: the role of maternal obesity in early pregnancy. Pediatrics 114, e29-36.

Wickramasinghe VP, Cleghorn GJ, Edmiston KA & Davies PS (2005) Impact of ethnicity upon body composition assessment in Sri Lankan Australian children. J Paediatr Child Health 41, 101-106.

Willett WC & Leibel RL (2002) Dietary fat is not a major determinant of body fat. Am J Med Sci 113, 47S-59S.

World Health Organisation (1997) Obesity: preventing and managing the global epidemic. Report of WHO Consultation on Obesity, pp. 1998. Geneva, 3-5 june 1997 (WHO/NIT/NCD/98.1).

World Health Organisation (2004) Global Strategy on Diet, Physical Activity and Health.

World Health Organisation (2006) WHO European Charter on Counteracting Obesity [http://www.euro.who.int/document/E89567.pdf], EUR/06/5062700/5062708.

World Health Organisation Multicentre Growth Reference Study Group (2006) WHO Child Growth Standards based on length/height, weight and age. Acta Paediatr Suppl 450, 76-85.

Yan W, Bingxian H, Hua Y, Jianghong D, Jun C, Dongliang G, Yujian Z, Ling L, Yanying G, Kaiti X, Xiaohai F & Da M (2007) Waist-to-Height Ratio is an Accurate and Easier Index for Evaluating Obesity in Children and Adolescents. Obesity 15, 748-752.

Yancy WS, Jr., Olsen MK, Guyton JR, Bakst RP & Westman EC (2004) A Low-Carbohydrate, Ketogenic Diet versus a Low-Fat Diet To Treat Obesity and Hyperlipidemia: A Randomized, Controlled Trial. Ann Intern Med 140, 769-777.

Yang F, Lv JH, Lei SF, Chen XD, Liu MY, Jian WX, Xu H, Tan LJ, Deng FY, Yang YJ, Wang YB, Sun X, Xiao SM, Jiang C, Guo YF, Guo JJ, Li YN, Zhu XZ, Papasian CJ & Deng HW (2006) Receiver-operating characteristic analyses of body mass index, waist circumference and waist-to-hip ratio for obesity: Screening in young adults in central south of China. Clin Nutr 25, 1030-1039.

Yang W, Kelly T & He J (2007) Genetic epidemiology of obesity. Epidemiol Rev 29, 49-61.

Young LR & Nestle M (2002) The Contribution of Expanding Portion Sizes to the US Obesity Epidemic. Am J Public Health 92, 246-249.

Yu-Poth S, Zhao G, Etherton T, Naglak M, Jonnalagadda S & Kris-Etherton PM (1999) Effect of the National Cholesterol Education Program's step I and step II dietary intervention programs on cardiovascular disease risk factors: a meta-analysis. Am J Clin Nutr 69, 632-646.

Zimmermann MB, Gubeli C, Puntener C & Molinari L (2004) Detection of overweight and obesity in a national sample of 6-12-y-old Swiss children: accuracy and validity of reference values for body mass index from the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the International Obesity Task Force. Am J Clin Nutr 79, 838-843.

Table of content

1. PREAMBULE 13

2. SYNTHESE BIBLIOGRAPHIQUE SUR L’OBESITE 14

2.1 DEFINITIONS DU SURPOIDS ET DE L’OBESITE 14

2.1.1 Définition générale du surpoids et de l’obésité 14

2.1.2 Définitions du surpoids et de l’obésité chez les enfants 15

2.1.3 Définitions du surpoids et de l’obésité chez les adultes 17

2.2 SITUATION EPIDEMIOLOGIQUE DU SURPOIDS ET DE L’OBESITE INFANTILES 18

2.2.1 Prévalence du surpoids et de l’obésité infantiles en France 18

2.2.2 Prévalence du surpoids et de l’obésité infantiles en Europe 21

2.2.3 Prévalence du surpoids et de l’obésité infantiles dans le reste du Monde 23

2.3 PRINCIPAUX FACTEURS DE RISQUE DE L’OBESITE INFANTILE 24

2.3.1 Remarques préliminaires 24

2.3.2 Facteurs de risque génétiques et épigénétiques 25

2.3.3 Facteurs de risque anténataux 27

2.3.4 Facteurs de risque alimentaires 27

2.3.5 Facteurs de risque liés à l’activité physique et à la sédentarité 30

2.3.6 Facteurs de risque socio-économiques, éducatifs et culturels 31

2.3.7 Facteurs de risque microbiens 32

2.3.8 Marqueurs staturo-pondéraux du risque d’obésité infantile 33

2.4 COMPLICATIONS DE L’OBESITE INFANTILE 34

2.4.1 Complications à court et moyen terme (durant l’enfance et l’adolescence) 34

2.4.2 Complications à long terme (à l’âge adulte) 36

2.5 RECOMMANDATIONS NUTRITIONNELLES POUR LA LUTTE CONTRE L’OBESITE 40

2.5.1 Recommandations nutritionnelles françaises 40

2.5.2 Recommandations nutritionnelles internationales 42

3. TRAVAUX PERSONNELS 44

3.1 RATIONNEL DE L’ETUDE ELPAS 44

3.1.1 Relations entre lipides, glucides et obésité 44

3.1.2 Objectifs de l’étude ELPAS 49

3.2 PROTOCOLE DE L’ETUDE ELPAS 51

3.2.1 Design général de l’étude 51

3.2.2 Encadrement de l’étude 51

3.2.3 Calendrier de l’étude 53

3.2.4 Organisation spatiale 53

3.2.5 Modalités d’intervention nutritionnelle 53

3.2.6 Conseils alimentaires 54

3.2.7 Moyens utilisés pour favoriser la compliance 55

3.2.8 Variables de suivi 56

3.2.9 Sélection de la population 61

3.2.10 Site Internet de l’étude 62

3.3 RESULTATS 64

3.3.1 Etudes de simulations 64

3.3.2 Comparaison de trois méthodes ambulatoires de mesure de la composition corporelle chez les enfants 95

3.3.3 Développement et validation d’une échelle de qualité de vie en français pour la population générale 110

3.3.4 Résultats de l’étude ELPAS 128

4. DISCUSSION GENERALE 140

4.1 DISCUSSION COMPLEMENTAIRE SUR LES RESULTATS DE L’ETUDE ELPAS CHEZ LES ENFANTS 140

4.1.1 Amplitude des modulations nutritionnelles observées 140

4.1.2 Modifications alimentaires chez les enfants 141

4.1.3 Effets cliniques des interventions 142

4.2 IMPLICATION DES RESULTATS DE L’ETUDE ELPAS POUR LES STRATEGIES DE LUTTE CONTRE L’OBESITE INFANTILE 144

4.2.1 Rôle central de la famille dans la lutte contre l’obésité infantile 144

4.2.2 L’école, un lieu d’intervention privilégié 144

4.2.3 L’intérêt d’une approche multidisciplinaire 145

5. CONCLUSION 147

6. BIBLIOGRAPHIE 149

ANNEXE 1 : LIVRETS D’INFORMATION DES VOLONTAIRES 175

ANNEXE 2 : QUESTIONNAIRES DE SUIVI 186

ANNEXE 3 : LETTRE DE L’INSTITUT FRANÇAIS POUR LA NUTRITION 210

ANNEXE 4 : COMMUNICATION AU 10EME CONGRES EUROPEEN DE NUTRITION 216

Statistiques de consultation

Repository Staff Only: edit this item